Key Factors Indicating Trust or Corporation Treatment
This checklist summarizes the primary factors that the IRS and US courts consider when determining whether a civil foundation will be treated as a trust or a corporation for US tax purposes. For each factor, it is indicated whether the presence of that characteristic suggests classification as a trust or as a corporation.
Checklist of Classification Factors
| Factor | Suggests Trust | Suggests Corporation |
| Purpose and Activities | Primarily to conserve or manage property for beneficiaries; passive investment or holding assets | Active conduct of business; operating a trade or business |
| Control and Management | Trustee, Founder, chairman and/or Board manage property for beneficiaries; beneficiaries have limited or no control | Board of directors or similar body controls operations for benefit of the “entity”; members/shareholders may have voting rights |
| Beneficiaries vs. Owners | Clearly defined beneficiaries who receive benefits from trust assets | Shareholders or members own interests in the entity and may receive dividends or distributions |
| Legal Title to Assets | Trustee holds legal title to assets for the benefit of beneficiaries | Entity itself (corporation) owns assets in its own name |
| Ability to Contract | Trustee enters into contracts on behalf of trust | Corporation enters into contracts in its own name |
| Perpetual Existence | Generally limited by the terms of the trust instrument or applicable law (may terminate or dissolve) | Corporation typically has perpetual existence unless dissolved (but see Estate of Swan, 24 T.C. 829 (1955), rev’d. on other grounds, 57-2 USTC ¶11,714 (2d Cir.) in which case the Founder would revoke the foundation). |
| Transferability of Interests | Interests in trust are generally not freely transferable; subject to trust terms | Shares/membership interests are generally transferable (subject to corporate bylaws) |
| Fiduciary Duties | Trustee owes fiduciary duties to beneficiaries | Directors/managers owe fiduciary duties to corporation and sometimes to shareholders |
| Formalities and Governance | Governed by trust instrument; less formalities required | Subject to statutory requirements (e.g., meetings, minutes, filings) |
| Profit Motive | May be for benefit of beneficiaries, not necessarily a profit-oriented entity | Formed to earn profits for shareholders/members |
| Tax Treatment | Taxed as a trust (grantor, simple, or complex trust rules); income may be taxed to grantor or beneficiaries | Taxed as a corporation (subject to corporate income tax or pass-through treatment if elected) |
| Ability to Raise Capital | Limited ability; generally through gratuitous contributions from settlor or beneficiaries as opposed to contributions in exchange for ownership certificates | Can issue shares, raise capital from investors |
| Distribution of Profits/Assets | Distributions made according to trust instrument to beneficiaries, Founder may have authority to affect distributions. | Dividends/distributions made to shareholders or members according to corporate rules |
Summary Guidance
- If the foundation’s primary purpose is to manage property for identified beneficiaries with limited business activity, it is likely to be treated as a trust.
- If the foundation operates a business, has transferable interests, perpetual existence, and is managed by a board, it is likely to be classified as a corporation.
- In ambiguous cases, the IRS applies a “facts and circumstances” test, weighing all factors to determine classification.
